Cannabis in antiquity

TL;DR

• Scythians (5th century BCE): ritual hemp-seed fumigations, described by Herodotus.
• China: cannabis (má) in the Materia Medica of Emperor Shennong (~2700 BCE, legendary).
• Ayurveda: bhang, a religious drink linked to Shiva.
• Assyria: cuneiform tablets mention 'qunubu' — probably cannabis.

Archaeological evidence

A 2019 study detected THC residues on incense altars in Judea (10th century BCE) — to date the clearest chemical evidence of ritual cannabis use. Scythian burial mounds at Pazyryk (Altai) contained hemp seeds and incense braziers (Russo 2007).

Archaeobotany in Switzerland and the Alpine Region

Archaeological excavations in Switzerland, particularly in the prehistoric pile dwellings of the Stone and Bronze Ages, regularly provide evidence of the early presence of hemp in the Alpine region. The hemp seeds and fibre remains found indicate that the plant was already valued as a precious raw material thousands of years ago. The robust fibre was excellently suited for the production of ropes, nets, and textiles, which was of existential importance for early settlement communities.

While historical use in the Alpine region was primarily of a practical nature, modern Swiss law today differentiates precisely between industrial hemp and psychoactive cannabis. Cannabis with a total THC content of less than one percent is not considered a narcotic and is therefore legal. This statutory regulation enables the continuation of the millennia-old tradition of industrial hemp cultivation in Switzerland in compliance with strict quality specifications by the Federal Office of Public Health (FOPH) and Swissmedic.

• Evidence of hemp seeds and fibres in Swiss pile dwellings of the Stone and Bronze Ages.
• Early use in the Alpine region primarily as a fibre plant for textiles and ropes.
• Differentiation in current Swiss law: a THC content of less than one percent is legal.
• Regulation of the cultivation of historical and modern industrial hemp varieties by the FOPH.

The Pharmaceutical Bridge from Antiquity to the Modern Era

Ancient physicians such as Galen of Pergamon or Dioscorides documented the physiological effects of cannabis and integrated them into the medical systems of their time. For centuries, these early observations formed the foundation of European monastic medicine. Today, modern science attempts to explain these historical applications by researching the endogenous cannabinoid system, although many ancient indications must be critically questioned due to a lack of standardisation.

In Switzerland, medical cannabis has been prescribable by doctors without an FOPH exceptional permit since August 2022. This step significantly facilitates access to standardised therapies for chronic pain or spasticity. Today's practice is no longer based on ancient traditions, but on controlled clinical data and precisely dosable preparations to ensure patient safety and efficacy in the modern healthcare system.

• Systematisation of the plant in ancient standard medical works.
• Transition from purely empirical application to evidence-based medicine.
• Facilitated prescription of medical cannabis in Switzerland since August 2022.
• Focus on standardised preparations instead of uncontrolled historical formulations.

Cultural and ritual meanings in global comparison

In many ancient societies, the consumption of cannabis was firmly integrated into ritual or religious practices and was often reserved for spiritual authorities. Its psychoactive properties were rarely understood as an everyday luxury, but rather as a tool for ritual communication or trance induction. This social embedding generally prevented uncontrolled abuse in everyday life and secured a sacred status for the plant.

Modern society faces the challenge of rationally regulating consumption outside of such ritual structures. In Switzerland, this is currently being done, among other things, through scientifically monitored pilot trials such as 'Züri Can' or 'Weed Care' in Basel. These time-limited projects investigate the effects of controlled distribution on public health in order to find contemporary alternatives to historical control mechanisms.

• In antiquity, ritual embedding prevented uncontrolled recreational use.
• Use as a sacred medium in Eurasian and Middle Eastern cultures.
• Modern Swiss pilot trials to research regulated forms of distribution.
• Focus on youth protection and harm reduction instead of ritual control.

Reconstruction of ancient forms of consumption and application methods

Research into ancient consumption methods shows that direct smoking, as it is common today, was rarely the primary form of consumption in antiquity. Instead, indirect inhalation methods dominated, in which plant parts were placed on heated stones or in closed censers to produce dense smoke. This method created a collective atmosphere and differed greatly from modern individual consumption. In addition to inhalation, oral preparations in the form of infusions, decoctions, or additions to food and wine played an essential role in various cultures.

In the medical practice of antiquity, topical applications were also preferred. Crushed hemp leaves or extracts were applied directly to the skin as poultices, patches, or ointments to relieve local ailments. This variety of application forms shows that ancient healers intuitively understood the different modes of action depending on the route of administration. From a modern Swiss perspective, where standardized extracts and tinctures can now be obtained from pharmacies, these ancient methods may seem rudimentary, but they laid the foundation for the understanding of galenic formulations.

• Indirect inhalation by placing flowers and seeds on glowing stones in enclosed spaces.
• Oral ingestion via fatty or alcoholic carrier media for better release of the lipophilic active ingredients.
• Topical application using poultices and ointments for the local treatment of external ailments.
• Lack of standardized inhalation devices, which led to highly fluctuating active ingredient absorption.

Agricultural cultivation in ancient agrarian societies

The targeted agricultural cultivation of hemp in antiquity required a deep understanding of soil conditions, water supply, and crop rotation. Since hemp is considered a demanding crop that prefers nutrient-rich and well-drained soils, cultivation was often limited to fertile river valleys or intensively managed agricultural land. Ancient farmers quickly recognized that the plant loosens the soil and suppresses weeds, which is why it played a valuable role in crop rotation. Harvesting and the subsequent processing of the tough fibers were extremely labor-intensive and required specialized tools.

The geographical spread of the plant via ancient trade routes led to a gradual adaptation to different climatic conditions. This resulted in a natural selection of genotypes that were suitable either for fiber production in cooler regions or for resin formation in warmer climates. This historical selection forms the biological basis for today's diversity of hemp varieties. In modern Swiss agriculture, this cultivation is continued under strict regulations, using exclusively certified seed to reliably comply with the legal limit of less than one percent total THC.

• Cultivation in nutrient-rich river valleys and use of the plant for natural soil improvement in crop rotation.
• Labor-intensive extraction of bast fibers through retting and mechanical separation of the woody plant parts.
• Climatic adaptation and selection of varieties for specific uses during the ancient migrations of peoples.
• Importance as a strategic raw material for the production of ropes, canvas, and durable clothing.

Ancient toxicology and risk assessment through historical change

Although ancient writings praise the versatility of the plant, scholars of that time were well aware that thoughtless consumption carries risks. Reports of temporary confusion, dehydration, or impairment of the senses after consuming large quantities can be found in various historical treatises. Since there were no chemical analytical methods, risk minimization was based exclusively on empirical observations and limiting the dose. Ancient toxicology often classified the effects within humoral systems, whereby consumption was categorized as potentially harmful for certain constitutional types.

Compared to antiquity, modern Switzerland has highly professionalized structures for risk assessment and harm reduction. In cases of suspected poisoning or adverse effects, Tox Info Suisse offers scientifically sound assistance around the clock via the emergency number 145. Furthermore, the zero-tolerance practice on Swiss roads, with a strict THC detection limit of 1.5 micrograms per liter of blood, is a clear example of how risks in modern everyday life are regulatorily minimized. These precise safety requirements contrast sharply with the vague, experience-based warnings of ancient healers.

• Documentation of side effects such as dry mouth, dizziness, and cognitive impairment in ancient writings.
• Risk minimization through strict dosage guidelines and restricting access to experienced healers.
• Classification of plant effects into the ancient humoral theory to avoid health imbalances.
• Contrast with modern Swiss risk assessment by institutions such as Tox Info Suisse and the Federal Office of Public Health.

Legal classification of cultivated plants: From antiquity to Swiss legislation

In ancient legal systems, one would search in vain for specific prohibitions or limit values for the cultivation and consumption of cannabis. Regulation occurred primarily through social norms, religious taboos, or the economic value of the plant as a raw material. Since psychoactive consumption was mostly restricted to ritual contexts, there was no need for ancient legislators to enact criminal sanctions. The transition from this informal, socially controlled use to state-monitored legislation only took place in the course of modernization and the emergence of global drug control regimes.

Today's Swiss legislation reflects this historical development, but relies on precise chemical parameters instead of social conventions. According to the Narcotics Act, cannabis with a total THC content of less than one percent is not considered a narcotic and is therefore legally tradable. For the recreational consumption of THC-rich cannabis, adults are subject to a fixed penalty fine of 100 francs for amounts from ten grams, although enforcement can vary by canton. This differentiated approach, supplemented by scientific pilot trials, demonstrates the Swiss path of pragmatic regulation in comparison to unregulated ancient practice.

• Absence of formal criminal prohibitions in ancient bodies of law, accompanied by strong social control.
• Swiss limit value of less than one percent total THC for a clear distinction between industrial hemp and illegal cannabis.
• Fixed penalty procedure of 100 francs for the possession of small quantities for personal consumption by adults in Switzerland.
• Federalist enforcement of the narcotics legislation by the cantonal authorities.

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